Rome Assessment
Study Guide

Twin brothers allegedly suckled by a she-wolf. Romulus killed Remus in a dispute and founded Rome on the Palatine Hill. This founding myth gave Romans a divine origin story tied to Mars (god of war).

Senate: aristocratic advisory body, controlled finances & foreign policy. Consuls: two elected leaders (1-year terms) with veto power (intercessio) over each other. Tribunes: elected by the plebeians, could veto Senate laws (tribunicia potestas). Dictator: temporary emergency ruler.

Three wars against Carthage (North Africa). Hannibal Barca famously crossed the Alps with elephants in the Second Punic War (218 BCE), winning at Cannae. Rome ultimately won all three, destroying Carthage in 146 BCE and gaining control of the western Mediterranean.

Tribunes who proposed land reforms to redistribute public land (ager publicus) to poor citizens. They challenged the Senate's power, threatening wealthy landowners. Both were killed by political opponents — marking the beginning of political violence in the late Republic.

A general who marched his legions on Rome itself — a radical break from tradition. He became dictator, executed political enemies through proscriptions, then voluntarily retired. He demonstrated that military force, not the Senate, could determine power.

An informal power-sharing alliance between Julius Caesar, Pompey (greatest general), and Crassus (wealthiest man in Rome). They cooperated to bypass the Senate. The alliance collapsed after Crassus died in battle (53 BCE), eventually leading to civil war between Caesar and Pompey.

Caesar spent eight years conquering modern-day France and Belgium. He documented his campaigns in Commentarii de Bello Gallico. The conquest gave him enormous wealth, a loyal army, and a heroic reputation — and deeply threatened the Senate's conservative faction.

A conspiracy of ~60 senators, led by Brutus and Cassius, stabbed Caesar 23 times in the Theatre of Pompey. Their stated motive: defending the Republic from a would-be king. He had been made dictator perpetuo (dictator in perpetuity) and was rumored to desire a crown.

Leaders of the Liberatores who killed Caesar. They fled Rome and were pursued by Octavian and Mark Antony. Both were defeated at the Battle of Philippi (42 BCE) and took their own lives.

Formed after Caesar's assassination by Octavian (Caesar's adopted heir), Mark Antony, and Lepidus. This was a legal power-sharing body, unlike the first. They defeated the Liberatores but then fell into civil war against each other.

Cleopatra VII (Queen of Egypt) allied with Mark Antony romantically and politically. At the naval Battle of Actium, Octavian's forces defeated Antony and Cleopatra. Both subsequently died by suicide. Octavian took control of Egypt and the Roman world.

Octavian took the title Augustus ("revered one") in 27 BCE. He ruled as Princeps (first citizen) — technically preserving the Republic while holding all real power. The Julio-Claudian Dynasty included Tiberius, Caligula, Claudius, and Nero.

~200 years of relative peace within the empire. Trade flourished; population reached ~70 million. Rome built extensive roads, aqueducts, temples, and amphitheaters. The army protected frontiers. This era saw Rome at its territorial and cultural peak.

Over 250,000 miles of roads built with layers of gravel, sand, and stone. They enabled fast military movement, trade, and communication. Famous roads: Via Appia, Via Flaminia. "All roads lead to Rome" reflected genuine hub-and-spoke design.

Stone channels that transported fresh water from mountain springs into cities. Rome had 11 major aqueducts delivering ~300 million gallons per day. They supplied public fountains, baths (thermae), and sewers — enabling Rome's massive urban population.

Phrase coined by poet Juvenal: emperors kept the urban poor politically passive with free grain (annona) and entertainment (gladiatorial games, chariot racing at the Circus Maximus, public spectacles). The Colosseum (completed 80 CE) held ~50,000 spectators.

Roman state religion was polytheistic and civic — participating was a sign of Roman loyalty. Rome tolerated foreign cults (Egyptian Isis, Persian Mithras), which often offered personal salvation. Christianity was unique in being exclusive — requiring worshippers to reject all other gods, threatening Roman civic unity.

~30% of Rome's population were enslaved. Slaves worked mines, latifundia (large farms), households, and even skilled trades. Slavery was the economic engine of the Republic and Empire, fueled by military conquest. Slave revolts (e.g., Spartacus, 73 BCE) showed its social tensions.

Last of the "Five Good Emperors" and a Stoic philosopher (Meditations). Considered the ideal philosopher-king. His reign saw continued prosperity but also major Antonine Plague (165 CE) and Germanic pressure on the frontiers. His death ended the Pax Romana.

~50 years of near-constant turmoil: military coups, plagues, economic collapse, and invasions on all frontiers simultaneously. Over 20 emperors ruled in this period (many for less than a year). Trade collapsed; inflation skyrocketed; the empire nearly disintegrated.

Diocletian ended the crisis by creating the Tetrarchy ("rule of four"): two senior emperors (Augusti) and two junior emperors (Caesares) split administrative control of the empire. He also tripled the army's size, restructured taxes, and reorganized provinces.

Diocletian issued an Edict attempting to fix maximum prices for hundreds of goods and services to combat hyperinflation. It largely failed — merchants hoarded goods rather than sell at capped prices, causing shortages. A famous example of an ancient economic policy backfiring.

Constantine reunified the empire after defeating rivals. He moved the capital to Constantinople (modern Istanbul) in 330 CE — shifting power eastward and away from Rome. He reorganized the army and continued administrative reforms. His Christian policies gave the church imperial backing.

Germanic tribes (Visigoths, Vandals, Huns, Ostrogoths) crossed Roman frontiers in increasing numbers. Causes: climate change pushing populations westward; weakened Roman military; Hunnic invasions from Central Asia pushing Germanic peoples into Roman territory. Rome began settling tribes within its borders as foederati (allied troops).

King of the Visigoths, a Germanic tribe that had served as foederati. After Rome failed to pay agreed subsidies, Alaric sacked the city of Rome — the first time Rome had been sacked in 800 years. Psychologically devastating; showed the empire could no longer protect even its capital.